Florida Atlantic University Technology & Social Structures Discussion

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Discussion Board Forum 1 – Technology and Social Structures

Introduction- Marshall

Organizations vary in size, structure, and function, but none are immune to the pressure environments impose on their operations. The size and amount of change each sector faces is a determinant in how stable or certain environmental factors that shape organizations’ decisions will be (Daft 2016). Through time, the implementation of technology has supported organizations bolstering robust capabilities that were not possible by conventional means. Scott and Davis (2018) introduce technology as a means for information sharing. Through technology, organizations can use relevant inputs to generation outputs, information, that align with the organization’s goals (Fernandez, 2018). Implications of technology in the organization range widely in their complexity and use.

The first industrial revolution brought about the steam engine, and the second new forms of energy (Postelnicu & Câlea, 2019). Later, the third industrial revolution brought about the reallocation of raw materials and the introduction of the interdependence within electronic infrastructures through the introduction and importance of Information Technology, “IT” (Postelnicu & Câlea, 2019). Finally, the fourth industrial revolution emerged, bringing with it advanced digital technologies which will create new value through the real-time and complex sharing of information in every sector (Postelnicu & Câlea, 2019). The purpose of this discussion is to highlight the implication of technology and the roles uncertainty and complexity play in the development technology structure and organizational boundaries in rational, natural, and open systems.

Explaining Uncertainty and Complexity

To better understand technical structures, it is important to construct meaningful context. The purpose of this section is to explore the dimensions which, as Scott and Davis (2018) suggest, “predict structural features of organizations” (p. 126).

Uncertainty

Uncertainty, as posited by Daft (2016), refers to having incomplete information such that decision-making is hindered due to environmental factors. According to Daft (2016), “uncertainty increases the risk of failure for organizational decisions and makes it more difficult to compute costs and probabilities associated with decision alternatives” (p.147). Further, Scott and Davis (2018) suggest that uncertainty refers to an organization’s ability to predict behaviors and recognize the variability in the work.

Complexity

Complexity, as posited by Efremov, Vladimirova, and Kamenschik (2019), is a product of organization adaptations to evolution in and throughout its environment. Additionally, complexity can be characterized as the diversity of environmental elements and factors which shape the ways organizations function (Daft, 2016). These diverse elements and their implications are experienced simultaneously (Scott & Davis, 2018). Further characterization of organizational complexity includes seven points. Complexity arises when there is interplay between to environmental elements, networks are formed, dynamism or flexibility is introduced, pieces of the of the organizations or processes become overly complicated, the open exchange of information occurs, elements cannot be broken down to simpler or individual components, and organizations have the memory and recall to recognize errors and aptly correct them through adaptation (Efremov, Vladimirova, & Kamenschik, 2019).

Application

Information is valuable to the function of a system. This section describes the application of technology structures throughout the three traditional paradigms presented by rational, natural, and open systems.

Technology and Rational Systems

The rational systems approach is characterized by its highly formalized structure and established roles, expectations, and centralization of authority (Scott & Davis, 2018). Another defining feature of the rational paradigm is the importance of stability (Scott & Davis, 2018). Stability influences behaviors within a rational organization which make for efficient and effective practices (Scott & Davis, 2018). Alternatively, uncertainty and complexity play a role in the structuring of technology in rational systems. There is a greater likelihood that organizations will act to buffer its technical core as both complexity and uncertainty increase (Daft, 2016; Scott & Davis, 2018).

When it comes to protecting its core, however, rational businesses have concern with inadequacies in buffers meant to protect the technical core from the impact of uncertainty (Scott & Davis, 2018). Buffering roles aid in the efficient and effective flow of an organizations key functions (Daft, 2016). Potential issues for participants may present in the need for expedient updates in information about changing environments (Daft, 2016). When it comes to protecting the technical core, the need to relay information rapidly has elevated over time, as the rate of disruption has dramatically increased since the initial technological revolutions.

Technology and Natural Systems

Organizational theory introduces three key themes which characterize technology structures in natural systems: social and cultural factors, informal structures, and the important of tacit knowledge (Scott & Davis, 2018). As decentralization occurs, as in natural systems, organizations realize a shift away from rigid hierarchal structures toward horizontal structures where information is shared through technology to encourage independent problem solving, team successes, and individual recognition (Daft, 2016). Natural systems’ emphasis on the social structure brings the prospect of the individual to the forefront of technological structure. Tacit knowledge is gained through individual experiences over time and is not easily transferred to others (Daft, 2016). These individually shaped experiences help develop expertise, and individuals’ expertise helps determine which technologies and structures are deployed strategically throughout the system to create unity (Scott & Davis, 2018).

As organizations decentralize authority, system complexity increases, effectively devaluing top-down control, and increasing the dependence on informal social structures and tacit knowledge gained through employee selection (Daft, 2016). In uncertain, dynamic, environments, horizontal structures better serve the flow of information through the system (Aslan & Vatansever, 2018). Participants in horizontal organizations are empowered by the flow of information from the bottom-up, lending well to the mediation of complex, uncertain, task environments. (Aslan & Vatansever, 2018). Participant in this framework combat the presence and demand for vertical structures, in order to promote a rigid and uncomplicated form of order, and instead, technologies must adapt to assume the advantages of minimal vertical lingages and autonomy is improved (Scott & Davis, 2018).

Technology and Open Systems

Contingency theory is hailed as the prevailing theory of organizational design (Scott & Davis, 2018). Dually, the school of thought serves as the construct in organizations as technical adaptive systems (Scott & Davis, 2018). Open system use flexible subunits and goals in response to the organization’s environment to accomplish its goals (Daft, 2016). Open systems leverage interdependence between individual units, and theorist posit that complex adaptive systems function best in interdependent networks such as these (Fidan, 2017). Dey and Ganesh (2017) posit, “as organizations become debureaucratized and boundaryless, teams must learn to make their boundaries permeable to information and resources, and that the boundary clearly defines who are in the team and make them accountable to the team” (p. 273). Of the three traditional frameworks, open systems involve the greatest need and leverage of technology and information systems as the complexity in the form of nonroutine technologies is characterized by high task variety, the need for technical knowledge and strategic planning, and interdependencies (Daft, 2016). Scott and Davis (2018) discuss the three dimensions of interdependence as poled, sequential, and reciprocal, airing that each is reflected in the other. In an open system, the reciprocal model brings about high levels of communicative work for the participants, requiring relational coordination (Daft, 2016).

Boundaries

To be effective as open systems, Scott and Davis (2018) suggest that information must enable constructive flows of information and knowledge through the system in order to avoid less desirable effects. Dey and Ganesh (2017) discuss boundaries as they relate to social structures not as physical elements, but instead as domains in which interactions can take place in such a way that allow the organization to survive in its environment. As boundaries increase in strength and are less permeable, the boundary characteristically become less open and therefore less willing and able to share necessary information across other teams, units or departments (Dey & Ganesh, 2017).Moreover, Scott and Davis (2018) discuss behavioral criteria which form organizational limits as a way to create the desired membership characteristics. Participant and their shared understanding of boundaries, create an organizational identity (Scott & Davis, 2018). For participants, the social implications of boundaries and social labor structures stem from organizational work, creating new problems. Three issues which arise include alienation, inequity, and insecurity (Scott & Davis, 2018).

Personal Perspective

In project management, there is fundamental application of technological structures amid the social structure of an organization. In my hospital role, project management requires not only understanding the technology that is available, but moreover the proper timing and appropriateness of the technology within the context of the organization. First, the project manager ought to understand the system, or systems, relevant to the work, and how technological structures would flourish as a product of the project. Projects and change are catalyzed by trigger events, or changes in the environment that warrant action in order for an organization to keeps its competitive advantage (Spector, 2013). This idea is consistent with the underpinnings of contingency theory at work and alive with respect to technology. Evaluating workflows, and interdependencies rely on the third dimension of complexity which focuses on pooled, sequential, and reciprocal modes of interdependence (Scott & Davis, 2018). Understanding the organizations structure and the dimensions of interdependence inform a project manager of how to navigate workflows in such a way that institutes sharing of information in a conducive way which takes advantage of the environment or creates shift to a new environment which compliments the technological adoption. In some cases, restructuring the core through grouping brings about an effective change that makes better use of its resources (Scott & Davis, 2018).

Biblical Perspective

The leaders outlined in the Old Testament, specifically the kings, brought about decline and a fall (Merida, 2015). The lessons taught by the mistakes of these kings highlight the need for a new king who will bring life and joy, and His work will serve to redeem God’s people (Merida, 2015). When Christ entered the world, he brought about the good news of grace, salvation, and the love of a holy father in Heaven. His walk with humanity exemplified God’s response to the changing environment on Earth, and the corruption and sin that would ultimately warrant an effective savior.

Technology serves an organization by cultivating various inputs which create meaningful outputs. In scripture, organizational structure did not outwardly benefit from the contemporary forms of technology organizations face today. The work of advancing God’s kingdom was setup through a disperse structure of people whose many different skills and goals would ultimately culminate in Christ’s final directive to “go and make disciples of all nations” (Matthew 28:18, New Living Translation). Scott & Davis (2018) posit that technology can be thought of as the work an organization does, and more specifically the knowledge and skills of its workers. Through his disciples, Jesus creates a technological and social network built on knowledge and sharing of the good news. This radical formation leveraged a horizontal structure. Although Christ taught lessons through parables and miracles, he repeatedly decreed he is the servant to the people, humbling himself to hear their cries and sharing of information from the bottom-up. His natural system was an organization that spread information through Gods instruments, His people.

Furthermore, Christ created context for his people, establishing boundaries. He acknowledged that no one was perfect, and that they need not have to be or even try. But instead, he created an organizational identity that was not founded in the rigid structure and policy that the people were used to, but instead in salvation by faith through grace. As he said to the a bleeding woman who reached for him “be encouraged, your faith has made you well” (Matthew 9:22, New Living Translation). In the same way Christ created an identity that combated alienation and separation from God, so too should organizations focus on creating structures that empower the effective flow of information which brings about conducive task environments for its participants.

Conclusion

Organizations are impacted by complexity and uncertainty in their environments. Interdependence and its layers also play a role in how organizations are structured and respond in changing environments. How organizations are shaped, influences their response to changes in their environments, and the characteristics of uncertainty in the environment will directly influence how information flows through the system to protect its functionality and effectiveness. Rational, natural, and open systems function through increasing levels of uncertainty, respectively, and where uncertainty increases, as does complexity of the organization and the necessity of technology that acts as a conduit for information. How the organization decides to shape its boundaries will also serve to support the flow of information but can also develop issues among its participants which should be considered. Christ exemplified a way for leaders to empower their people to be effective conduits of information and effectiveness. Through his disciples he formed a working system for the purpose of advancing God’s kingdom. This work was fortified by its roots and identity which aligned the social structure toward the almighty father.

References

Aslan, H., & Vatansever, B. (2018). Efficiency of knowledge inflow structures: The mediation effect of task environment analysis. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science, 7(4), 30-43. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.20525/ijr…

Daft, R. L. (2016). Organization theory & design (12th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Dey, C., & Ganesh, M. P. (2017). Team boundary activity: A review and directions for future research. Team Performance Management, 23(5), 273-292. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1108/TPM-…

Efremov, V. S.,Vladimirova, I. G., & Kamenschik, D. V. (2019). Strategic Management As A Way To Control Organisational Complexity. Varazdin: Varazdin Development and Entrepreneurship Agency (VADEA). Retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://searc…

Fernandez, A. A. R. (2018). The effect of organization culture and technology on motivation, knowledge asset and knowledge management. International Journal of Law and Management, 60(5), 1087-1096. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1108/IJLM…

Fidan, T., & Balc?, A. (2017). Managing schools as complex adaptive systems: A strategic perspective. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10(1), 11-26. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.26822/iej…

Merida, T. (2015). Crist-centered exposition: Exalting Jesus in 1 & 2 Kings. Holman Reference.

Scott, W. R. & R. & Davis, G.F. (2016). Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural, and open system perspectives. Routledge

Discussion Board Forum 2

Organizations as well as organizational theory is constantly evolving. One possible reason for this is because technology is constantly changing. As technology changes it causes organizations to restructure how they accomplish their goals. Carr (2014) wrote about how technology changed the movie industries delivery methods. Before digital copies of movies and high speed internet most people watched movies by going to a local movie rental store, but technology changed all of that. The organizations that simple tried to change their prices without change how they delivered movies went out of business while the organizations that changed the structure of their organization and how they delivered movies survived.

Technology is not the only aspect of organizations that is changing. Gender in the workplace is also changing. Scott (2016) argues that there are more women in the workplace this century than there was last century. Scott also says that women earn 70 percent of what men earn and that this figure has not changed much since 1920 to 1980. The author of this paper finds his argument to be very vague and his data to be too narrow to be used for argument purposes. It is also interesting that Scott’s book was published in 2016 and his latest quote is from 1980. It would appear that Scott is not as much concerned with the facts as he is pushing a political agenda. Blau (2017) looked at gender pay gaps between 1955 to 2014 and said that the “long-term trend has been a substantial reduction in the gender wage gap, both in the United States and in other economically advanced nations” (p. 190). The low of the gap was in the 1970’s where women earned about 60 cents per dollar compared to men and rose steady to about 80 cents per dollar near 2014. Blau (2017) says that much of the gap can be explained by job occupation and industry, but then hedges his claim by saying that there are variables that cannot be measured that affect the wage gap. He is not the only one that feels the need to say that the wage gap exist even without date to back it up. Bacolod (2017) says that much of the wage gap can be explained. He says “data show that women are concentrated in jobs relatively more intensive in interactive and cognitive skills, while men are comparatively in physical skill?intensive jobs”, however, Bacolod believes in the wage gap and says that regression math concerning pay compensation for college attainment and other factors means that women should earn more than they actually do.

The wage gap is clearly an issue for organizations, however, there is no clear answer as to what organizations need to do. Most of the gap is because of the types of jobs men and women take. If organizations attempt pay men and women the same amount of money total money regardless of the type of jobs they get. That will mean that they will have to pay women more money than the male counter parts for doing the same type of work, but that would break the law that says everyone must get paid the same amount of money for the same type of work. Organizations are stuck in a no-win situation. Break the law or keep the law and appear sexist because women are taking lower paying jobs than men.

As an economist he was trained with the knowledge that theories cannot be proved or disproved and therefore there is usually two opposing views. Either of these views could be fully correct or fully incorrect or possible both of them are partly correct.

Another social boundary issue is over racism. In Scott’s (2016) textbook he argues that the inequality of race is due to “conservative federal policies during the 1980’s”. Scott is clearly taking a jab at republicans. There are dozens of theories as to why there was a slowdown of the narrowing gap between whites and blacks, but the textbook just mentioned one possible theory that was based off of one correlation. Correlations do not in any way prove causation, but Scott fails to mention that. There are in fact many theories as to why the gap increased in the 1980’s and 1990’s time period. One theory is the war on drugs. Cooper (2015) wrote that the war on drugs leads to racist and to police brutality against African Americans.

Some other social boundaries issues are related to how much work is down in house vs being outsourced. The old school view was that outside relationships should be minimized because they were variables that were outside the control of the organization, but in recent decades that view has changed to one that is more concerned with limiting commitments on what the company has to get done and a much larger focus on specialization of what the company is best at (Scott, 2016, p. 181). Scholtz (2016) says that it can sometimes be more beneficial if the upstream and downstream services are owned by different people. He says that “specialization enables the use of regional operating centers, minimum onsite cash costs, optimized operating conditions, minimized energy consumption, and the optimal use of other variable cost parameters” (Scholtz, 2016, p. 1092). This specialization is what a company is good at is not only beneficial in manufacturing companies. Byun et al. (2018) showed that it can also lead to greater relational gains among organizations.

Organizations use to want to keep their employees their whole career, but that has also changed. From 1983 to 2004 the average length of employment with the same company for older individuals dropped from 15 year to 10 years (Scott, 2016, p. 169). Although this is true, Fujita (2018) found that labor turnover has been declining for the past four decades. He argues that it is because of an increase in the demand as well as the supply of high skilled workers. Jobs that require a lot of skill usually start at lower wages and as the worker acquires the skills specific to that particular job their income will also rise. This implies that once someone has worked up the required skill to get to the normal wages of the skilled job they are is less likely to switch employers because it may also mean taking a pay cut with the new company. This also has social considerations because the employers also know this and this takes away the employees ability to negotiate higher wages, better benefits, or longer vacation days (Fujita, 2018). Another factor that could explain why older employees are not staying with the same company as long is because of a shift from employer sponsored pension plans to individual 401K plans. 401K retirement plans allow employees to change companies without losing their retirement benefits. This is a likely cause of the decrease in older people staying with the same company in their old age. There is also the possibility that discrimination of older people is increase. Both theories are possible and neither one is able to be proved as true or untrue.

The Three Perspectives of Organizations

All three perspective have arguments related to technology and change. Technology fits wonderfully with the rational theory of organizations. Scott (2016) says that technology is best applied with division of labor and a hierarchy of authority (p. 160). Scott (2016) also mentions “[m]any rational system alternatives exist for grouping activities and designing coordination systems to accommodate increasing levels of interdependence and complexity” (p. 149). The rational system is concerned with goal accomplishment and technology is very useful in accomplishing an organizations goals.

Both the natural system and the open system are great for analyzing social boundaries. The natural system focuses more on informal structures and is thus less affected by changes in technology (Scott, 2016, p. 149), but that does not mean it is not affected. The natural system view would argue that an increase in the use of technology leads to an increase in the need for high skilled workers and as mentioned earlier in this paper this change in skill level can lead to a change in starting pay and thus a change in the bargaining power of employees.

The open system view is the best theory to use when looking at social boundaries (Scott, 2016, p. 181). The open system is good because many social issues have become political issues and politics is a part of the environment that the organization operates in and is also outside the control of the organization.

Personal Perspective

Schools are organizations that also have social boundaries. Some would argue that teachers should be unbiased and avoid using their power as a soap box to push their political views. The author of this paper believes that social boundary was cross on Wednesday June 3rd 2020 when the teacher expressed his opinion on a hot topic issue concerning law enforcement and the legal system in American to the whole class. The author of this paper has prayed about how he should respond and this is what he feels lead to say.

The author of this paper is fearful that his grade will be hurt because is in disagreement about a social issue that his teacher strongly took one side on. This should not be the case in a college class. To be clear, the author of this paper is completely against what happened to George Floyd and from what he knows, based on the evidence he has gotten about the case from the media, he believes that Derek Chauvin is guilty of murder as well as the other three officers involved. He would also like to state that he also he strongly believes in innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. Not guilty from the media and the masses opinion on the matter. The author of this paper will also not generalize all police officers because of the actions of a few. The author’s uncle was a major detective in the police force and one of his closest friends is currently a law officer. Both of them are farthest thing from brutal racist and he feels their honor along with the honor of many honorable police officers is being disgraced and he will have no part in that. Paul says in Romans 13:7 “Pay to all what is owed to them… respect to whom respect is owed, honor to whom honor is owed” (ESV). Isaiah tell Israel to “learn to do good; seek justice, correct oppression; bring justice to the fatherless, pleased the widow’s cause (1:17, ESV). Kramer et al. (2019) says that there are two movements related to police and violent. The black lives matter (BLM) movement and the blue lives matter (BLM) movement. He says “BLM suggests that Black lives matter more than others… that feeds mistrust and hampers policing, incites violence against police officers, and makes everyone less safe” (p. 21). They argue that the true divide is on whether black people are experiencing violence more than other people. They argue that few have looked at all the data and that the data itself is lacking what is needed to make a claim for either side’s argument (Kramer, 2019, p. 21). It is mostly the case that the media is only reporting on items that will get views. Items like the violence done to George Floyd. The incident might have nothing to do with race, but that is not an opinion people are considering. There is most likely many such cases involving white and black police officers and violence against white criminals, but those aren’t being reported in the media. It is dangerous to based ones opinion with only some of the evidence or from personal experiences. Solomon warns in Proverbs 18:13 “If one gives an answer before he hears, it is his folly and shame” (ESV) and in Proverbs 18:17 “The one who states his case first seems right, until the other comes and examines him” (ESV).

Biblical Perspective

Race was not as large of a social issue during the period of time that the Bible was written, so naturally the Bible has little to say on the issue. The only mention of skin color is in the Song of Solomon where the bride says “[d]o not gaze at me because I am dark, because the sun has looked upon me” (1:6, ESV).

The Bible is very clear when it comes to social boundaries between male and female. The Bible was very progressive when it was written. God is clear that he shows no partiality (Romans 2:11). God causes rain to fall on the righteous and the wicked (Matthew 5:45). In Genesis 1:27 God said that he created them male and female in His image. The first commandment with promise is to respect parents. Deborah was a judge of all of Israel. Solomon used Wisdom to decide a case of two women that Merida et al. says “weren’t the most respected members of their society. Yet the king uses his wisdom and cares for them, even though some probably would not give them the time of day” (2015). Jesus spoke with the women at the well (John 4:7-26) He defended the prostitute that washed His feet with her tears (Luke 7:36-50). Women followed Jesus (Matthew 14:21). The first eye witnesses of the resurrected Jesus were women (Matthew 28:8-10). Paul in his letter to the church in the Galatians wrote: “there is no male or female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus” (Galatians 3:28, ESV). It is unarguable that God views men and women equally and therefore Christians should treat men and women equally.

References

Bacolod, M. (2017). Skills, the gender wage gap, and cities. Journal of Regional Science, 57(2), 290-318. doi:10.1111/jors.12285

Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865. doi:10.1257/jel.20160995

Byun, H., Frake, J., & Agarwal, R. (2018). Leveraging who you know by what you know: Specialization and returns to relational capital. Strategic Management Journal, 39(7), 1803-1833. doi:10.1002/smj.2790

Carr, A. S. (2014). An examination of technology and organization’s change in service delivery to meet customer expectations. Journal of Applied Business Research, 30(3), 725-735. doi:10.19030/jabr.v30i3.8557

Cooper, H. L. (2015). War on drugs policing and police brutality. Substance use & Misuse: Fifty Years Later: Ongoing Flaws and Unfinished Business, 50(8-9), 1188-1194. doi:10.3109/10826084.2015.1007669

Fujita, S. (2018). Declining labor turnover and turbulence. Journal of Monetary Economics, 99, 1-19. doi:10.1016/j.jmoneco.2017.12.005

Kramer, r., Remster, b., & Charles, c. z. (2017). Black lives and police tactics matter. Contexts, 16(3), 20-25. doi:10.1177/1536504217732048